School Approaches To Family Counseling

Course Study Description

CCEUS35 -  School Approaches To Family Counseling. [10 contact hours] - [$50.00 -  NO OTHER COURSE FEES APPLY] The focus of this course is on a sound theoretical foundation with very practical approaches and techniques for offering family counseling in the school setting.  The nature of school counseling has changed drastically in recent years.  In the past we tended to concentrate on the kinds of services that we knew best.  Today's school counselor is called upon to tailor our interventions to the widely varying needs of a heterogeneous student population.  Today's students and their problems are non-traditional so today's counselors must be flexible, innovative, and prepared to learn new skills. Focusing on families, rather than solely on individuals, requires that school counselors make some difficult and sometime uncomfortable adaptations. In dealing with families, assessment and intervention strategies are complex and require an understanding both of human beings, of the systems that affect them, and how the school may play a role in this work.  Family counseling is rapidly becoming the treatment of choice for dealing with a variety of issues and problems.  School counselors have learned that every student has a family that significantly impacts their performance in the school, whether that be positive or negative. Counselors are also aware that they must work with families if they hope to have a significant impact on their students' lives and enable them to make better decisions about their lives. This course investigates how the school counselor can provide family counseling in the schools employing a family systems perspective. The basis of the course rests upon the idea that family counseling can be provided by school counselors with a proper orientation to a systems viewpoint rather than relying on referrals to outside agencies.  The course pays particular attention to helping counselors to become more knowledgeable about and effective in using family counseling techniques and interventions. Systems theory and therapy in a school counseling setting are thoroughly explored.  Family counseling techniques that might yield success in the school setting are explored.  Special issues are also discussed including: abuse, anorexia, substance abuse, ADHD, and anti-social behavior. Approaches are covered for dealing with crisis situations in the schools and managing them with attention to a family systems strategy. 

Course Directions

Click on the Course Directions page to read course procedures. 

Course Outcomes

As a result of the work and study in the course the counselor/student will:

Text [Required Reading To Be Prepared For The Exam]

Family Counseling in the Schools : Effective Strategies & Interventions for Counselors, Psychologists & Therapists.  by J. Scott Hinkle and Michael E. Wells. $19.95 available on The Bookstore page.

Study Guide Questions

Vocabulary

1. systems theory

2. family counseling

3. IEP

4. IFSP

5. family hierarchy

6. boundaries

7. alliances and coalitions

8. adaptive change

9. symptoms

10. solution-focused counseling

11. Jay Haley

12. family characteristics

13. interactions

14. communication

15. function

16. life cycle

17. circular causality

18. Murray Bowen

19. triangulated relationships

20. subsystems

21. microsystems

22. equifinality

23. enmeshed

24. disengaged

25. dynamic or process oriented

26. Monica McGoldrick

27. E. A. Carter

28. Chloe Madannes

29. Salvatore Minuchin

30. differentiation of self

31. multigeneration transmission process

32. nuclear family

33. extended family

34. blended family

35. reconstituted family

36. Virginia Satir

37. family roles

38. family rules

39. structural-strategic model

40. multigenerational issues

41. metaphors

42. strategic family counseling

43. structural family counseling

44. family life cycle transitions

45. triangles

46. reframing

47. paradoxical intention

48. double  bind

49. first order change

50. second order change

51. change of change

52. predicting relapse

53. ordeal therapy

54. structural family counseling

55. Milan Systemic Family Therapy

56. Gregory Bateson

57. hypotheses

58. positive connotation

59. prescriptive intervention

60. circular questioning

61. Interactional Family Systems Therapy - MRI

62. relabeling

63. harness the self-fulfilling prophecy

64. Alfred Adler

65. STEP Program

66. Rudolph Dreikers

67. Donald Dinkmeyer

68. problem stage

69. interaction stage

70. behavioral metaphors

71. resistance

72. therapeutic letters

73. family assessments

74. ecomaps

75. genograms

76. family sculpture

77. clinical interview

78. clinical diagnosis

79. anorexia

80. abuse

81. ADHD

82. antisocial behavior

83. family floor plan

84. divorce

85. marital conflict

Supplementary Readings [Required Reading To Be Prepared For The Exam]

http://ericcass.uncg.edu/digest/2002-02.html  Incorporating Family Work Into Individual Counseling

Family Counseling in the Schools. ERIC Digest.

OVERVIEW

School counselors are becoming more aware of a larger unit of intervention that includes the family. Family interventions by school counselors can address a child's misbehavior, making costly special placements unnecessary. Furthermore, school counselors are in a unique position to appreciate the effectiveness of family counseling approaches with children. This digest presents information regarding brief family counseling in the schools and re-training school counselors already in the work force to provide family counseling.

School children react to changes and stress within the family unit in which they belong. For example, children can become symptomatic at school when a crisis occurs at home; these symptoms may then serve a systems function by getting help for the troubled family. Using this family systems approach, school counselors can apply family counseling to solve a child's problems and assist the child's family in finding solutions to problems from a social context. Therefore, from a systemic perspective, dated cause-and-effect logic becomes meaningless when dealing with children in the schools.

After eliminating specific school causes for presenting problems, school counselors should consider etiology that is based out of school. According to systems theory, when a child's problem persists, it is usually connected to the extended social unit or family. Therefore, it is best to solve the problem by including the school as well as the family in formulating a solution. This perspective suggests that a student's negative behavior is connected to how the parents and other family members respond when the problem behavior occurs. It is important for the school/family counselor to ask how the problem is maintained in the system?

Idiosyncratic approaches to school problems have at times required inordinant amounts of time and resulted in little substantial improvement. However, school counselors utilizing family counseling within the school have reported successful interventions for brief periods of time when compared to lengthy individual counseling. If the problem is more complicated or requires long-term counseling, family interviews conducted by school counselors can significantly aid in a referral to an outside community agency. If the family is referred outside the school, the school counselor may even attend the first "extended family" session.

RE-TRAINING: COMPETENCIES FOR SCHOOL COUNSELORS

Such re-training should focus on elective study in family counseling that may include additional graduate courses, continuing education, and/or inservice training. Re-training in family counseling prepares a counselor to work in a limited role with families. It may include introductory graduate courses in family counseling and subsequent supervised practice. Disadvantages to this re-training format include limited preparation to deal with complex systems problems. However, advantages include "on the job" exposure to family counseling without extended training.

In addition, becoming familiar with the literature in family counseling is essential to re-training. This should continue with a focus on family counseling skills and techniques. Since they typically have not learned sufficient techniques to begin effective family counseling, school counselors will find readings about family counseling quite rewarding.

It is also beneficial for school counselors re-training in family counseling to form study groups and affiliate with professionals who specialize in family counseling. Study groups can view and learn from videotapes of master counselors in addition to their own family counseling. Role playing and consulting with each other regarding family cases will also be helpful. School counselors can also seek out local family counselors willing to provide consultation and/or supervision. Additionally, opportunities to do co-therapy with experienced family counselors should be sought in order to develop specific competencies in family counseling.

SPECIFIC FAMILY COUNSELING COMPETENCIES

Eventually, family interventions within the school will include the development of a plan and a prescription that includes reframing problem behavior and assigning homework tasks. School counselors will need to acquire skills at establishing rapport with the family system, showing caring and concern, as well as sharing positive characteristics of the child with the family.

Consulting with parents about their child and assisting with their understanding of child and adolescent behavior also are important family counseling competencies. Many parents need assistance with re-establishing their executive position as primary decision-makers within their family. Effective relationships between parents and grandparents and other extended family members also must be established. Parents frequently need help in establishing behavioral expectations and discipline for their children. Child behavioral problems that are a function of marital discord should also be identified and an appropriate referral made.

CONCLUSION

RESOURCE DOCUMENTS

Goldenberg, I., & Goldenberg, H. (1988). Family systems and the school counselor. In W. M. Walsh & N. J. Giblin (Eds.), Family counseling in school settings (pp. 26-47). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

McComb, B. (1981). Family counseling (special issue). Elementary School Guidance and Counseling, 15(3).

McDaniel, S. H. (1981). Treating school problems in family therapy. Elementary School Guidance and Counseling, 15, 214-222.

Palmo, A. J., Lowry, L. A., Weldon, D. P., & Scioscia, T. M. (1988). Schools and family: Future perspectives for school counselors. In W. M. Walsh & N. J. Giblin (Eds.), Family counseling in school settings (pp. 39-47). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

Peeks, B. (1990). A family approach for treating behaviorally impaired students in the schools. Oregon Counseling Journal, 12, 12-15.

Stone, G., & Peeks, B. (1986). The use of strategic family therapy in the school setting: A case study. Journal of Counseling and Development, 65, 200-203.

Walsh, W. M., & Giblin, N. J. (Eds.). (1988). Family counseling in school settings. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

Wells, M. E., & Hinkle, J. S. (1990). Elimination of childhood encopresis: A family systems approach. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 12, 520-526.

J. Scott Hinkle is an assistant professor in the Department of Counseling and Specialized Educational Development at the University of North Carolina, Greensboro.

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This publication was prepared with funding from the Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education under contract number RI88062011. The opinions expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect the position or policies of OERI or the Department of Education.

Brief Family Consultation in Schools. Highlights: An ERIC/CAPS Digest.

INTRODUCTION

Brief family consultation is a short-term strategy that enlists the home and school in an attempt to solve childhood behavior problems. It is ideally suited to a school setting where there are severe limitations on the counselor's time. Further, the skills involved draw upon those that are taught in most counselor education programs: active listening, behavior modification, and interpersonal communication.

Brief family consultation, in common with family therapy, is based on systems theory. Systems theorists assume that the presenting problem is not that of the child alone. Individual problems are seen as relationship problems. Experienced counselors are aware of the importance of working closely with the family when a child exhibits behavior problems. The family is in a powerful position to support or sabotage the best efforts of counselors and teachers on a child's behalf (Palmo, Lowry, Weldon, & Scioscia, 1984).

ASSESSMENT

A functional family, that is, one that will respond successfully to a brief intervention, will score "high marks" on each of these criteria: (a) parental resources, (b) chronicity, (c) communication between family members, (d) parental authority, and (e) rapport with professional helpers (Golden, 1988).

Parental resources. Are these parents capable of providing for their child's basic needs (food, shelter, and care)? A stable marriage, an extended family, and gainful employment are resources that work in favor of the parent's attempt to bring a child's misbehavior under control. On the other hand, young, immature, single parents have fewer resources at their disposal. Families in which there is a history of extreme poverty or alcoholism bring very limited capacity to the task of managing childhood behavior problems.

Chronicity. An acute problem with an identifiable psychosocial stressor presents an opportunity for behavior management; a chronic problem may indicate the need for long-term therapy. A parent's response such as, "She's always been a difficult child," suggests a less favorable prognosis than, "His grades have gone downhill since October, that's when I lost my job."

Communication between family members. Can family members communicate well enough to solve problems? According to Satir (1972), there is a normal tendency to close down communication during periods of stress. In dysfunctional families, closed communication is the rule, not the exception. This closed system is maintained by yelling, blaming, sarcasm, or more ominously, silence. The following interaction illustrates a closed, defensive system:

Counselor: (To 9-year-old) Tell your father how he can help you or encourage you to get better grades.

Father: (Angrily interrupts) He would have to change his entire attitude before I'll help with a damn thing! He wants to squeak by doing nothing and that's just what he'll amount to!

Mother: (Putting her arm around Jeff and addressing Father) You can't expect a child to do hours of homework after being in school all day long and on top of doing all of those ridiculous chores you make him do.

With his furious outburst, Father ensures that a meaningful dialogue with Jeff will be avoided. Mother reinforces her son's dependency by speaking on his behalf against Father.

Parental authority. Are parents effective in asserting authority? Parents in functional families hold an "executive" position within the family organization. In dysfunctional families parents surrender authority in the hope that conflict with the child can be avoided. Children in such families are often out of control.

Rapport with professional helpers. Can parents and professionals work together as a team? Do parents return phone calls? Are they punctual for conferences? Central to the issue is follow-through; the functional family does its "homework." Conversely, are the child's teachers responsive to parents?

INTERVENTIONS

A brief family consultation requires three to five face-to-face family conferences. The process is best described by an example of what the counselor might say to parents in the initial interview. In this case, Brent, a sixth-grader, presents a problem of getting into fights:

I am interested in working with you for a short period of time, no more than five conferences, to help get Brent to stop fighting. I think you can manage this situation with only a little help from me and there is cause for optimism. Before he started 6th grade, there were no reports of any fighting. Brent is earning good grades and, except for fighting, is well-behaved. As parents, you have shown that you want to cooperate with school authorities to get this problem solved. For my part, I'll coordinate a team effort to include you, Brent's teachers, and Brent, himself, if he is willing. If he is not, we are still going to do everything we can to change his behavior.

The family, and perhaps the teachers, will want to know about their time commitment. When a brief consultation exceeds five family conferences without resolution of the problem, another option, such as a referral for family therapy, is called for. The time limitation can be therapeutic simply by exerting pressure for results on consultant, teachers, and parents (Chandler, 1983). Typically, the task of the teachers is to provide the parent with a daily report of the child's behavior. Note that contacts with the family are called "conferences," not "sessions," because of the therapeutic associations of the latter term. Likewise, the term "consultation" serves to emphasize that the family does not need nor will it be receiving "therapy."

According to Haley (1980), parents must agree on three issues if they are to manage their child's behavior: (a) the specific behaviors that are desired from the child, (b) the mechanism by which the parents will know if their child has behaved in the desired way, and (c) the consequences for behavior or misbehavior. If marital discord surfaces, parents should be encouraged to work toward agreement for the good of their child and deal with their marital problems at some later time.

Family members may shut down communication in response to stress, such as that caused by a child's misbehavior. Unfortunately, it is precisely during a stressful episode that open communication is most important. A gentle and respectful application of basic, active listening skills (e.g., paraphrasing, reflection) will usually suffice to get people talking.

Parents are encouraged to take control of resources that could serve as reinforcers. For example, a child who is "independently wealthy," sporting a big allowance and a room full of electronic equipment, is in a position to ignore his parents' demands for behavior change. In this case, the child's allowance should be reduced to zero. He/she earns money by behaving responsibly.

Many of the best laid behavioral plans are defeated by ambivalence. In any brief strategy, the motto must be, "Go for it!" Continuation of problematic behavior, even in an otherwise competent child, may result in a negative and habitual style of coping with stress.

LIMITATIONS

A weakness of the systems approach is that the process is crippled if a key family member refuses to participate. However, a brief intervention can be effective in single-parent families (Golden, 1983).

REFERENCES

Golden, L. (1983). Brief family interventions in a school setting. Elementary School Guidance & Counseling, 17, 288-293.

Golden, L. (1988). Quick assessment of family functioning. School Counselor, 35, 179-184.

Haley, J. (1980). Leaving home: The therapy of disturbed young people. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Palmo, A. J., Lowry, L. A., Weldon, D. P., & Scioscia, T. M. (1984). Schools and family: Future perspectives for school counselors. School Counselor, 31, 272-278.

Satir, V. (1972). Peoplemaking. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books.

Larry Golden, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Education University of Texas-San Antonio 1990 ----- This publication was prepared with funding from the Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education, under contract no. RI88062011. The opinions expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect the positions or policies of OERI or the Department of Education.

The Challenge of Counseling in Middle Schools. ERIC Digest.

INTRODUCTION

Counselors in middle schools work with young people whose lives are in constant flux. Early adolescence is a time of physical, intellectual, emotional, and social development, during which young people confront the question, "Who am I?" The young adolescent's search for identity involves many challenges (Gerler, Hogan, & O'Rourke, 1990).

This digest deals with how counselors in middle schools can help youngsters face the various challenges of early adolescence. Counselors are called upon to plan programs that make middle schools inviting places for young people to learn and grow.

There are major differences between middle schools and high schools, differences that cause some students to get lost emotionally and to fail academically. Middle school counseling programs need to focus on preparing youngsters for the increased independence of life in high school that is typically accompanied by more social pressures and by increased stress.

THE CHALLENGE OF UNDERSTANDING SELF

Middle school students need the guidance and direction of effective counselors to begin the major developmental task of adolescence which is to achieve a clear sense of self (Marcia, 1980). The confusion that reigns in early adolescence creates a challenging climate for the young person and for those trying to help the youngster manage the difficulties associated with leaving childhood for a new stage of life. Counselors implement various practical strategies to help middle school students move toward self understanding. These strategies include such activities as maintaining daily journals, group counseling, and developmental classroom programs that offer young people opportunities for self exploration.

THE CHALLENGES OF FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS

THE CHALLENGES OF PEER PRESSURE AND DRUG ABUSE

Most middle schools are not prepared to offer adequate prevention programs to help youngsters challenge the social pressure to experiment with drugs. In fact, the current status of drug education in schools throughout the United States is ambiguous at best. Theory-based prevention programs that have been tested offer hope that drug abuse prevention programs will improve. Assertiveness training programs, for example, that are designed to help adolescents resist peer pressure, seem to offer middle school counselors intriguing ideas for program development. In addition, cognitive-development programs that are intended to raise the psychological maturity of youngsters and improve their decision-making offer considerable hope for middle school counseling programs.

Middle school counselors must understand the relationship between peer pressure and substance abuse and develop counseling strategies that are designed to help young adolescents deal with the pressures to use drugs.

THE CHALLENGES OF STRESSFUL LIVES

Middle school counselors must implement programs that help young adolescents deal with many stressful circumstances. Desensitization programs that help in overcoming undue fears and relaxation programs that attempt to relieve stress may help young adolescents develop confidence and hope for the future.

THE CHALLENGE OF SEXUAL MATURATION

Much has been written about adolescent sexuality, in particular, about topics such as friendship, sexual identity, and adolescent pregnancy. Middle school counselors must implement programs that take into account the impact of physical and sexual maturation on students' lives. Counselors should especially work to prepare adolescents to meet the challenging issues surrounding contraception and teen pregnancy (Smith, Nenney, & McGill, 1986).

THE CHALLENGE OF ACADEMICS

Middle school counselors can contribute to schools' efforts at improving academic achievement among young teenagers (Gerler, Drew, & Mohr, 1990). These days middle schoolers often have considerable freedom. Many are latchkey children who may choose what to do when they arrive home from a day at school. More often than not they choose leisure, neglecting their academic responsibilities. Middle school counselors should collaborate with teachers to implement programs that help youngsters develop a reasonable "work ethic."

Middle school counselors can play an important role in helping young people see themselves as capable students who have the potential to realize academic success. Counselors should take the lead in transforming low achieving and disruptive adolescents into model students.

THE CHALLENGE OF CAREER EXPLORATION

It is especially important for young adolescents to learn the skills that will eventually help them achieve gainful employment. These skills include how to write a resume, how to fill out a job application, and how to interview effectively for a job. Middle school counselors must be especially attentive to the special needs of exceptional students in the area of career exploration.

THE CHALLENGE OF ORGANIZING A COUNSELING PROGRAM IN MIDDLE SCHOOLS

REFERENCES

Gerler, E. R., Hogan, C. C., & O'Rourke, K. (1990). The challenge of counseling in middle schools. Ann Arbor, Michigan: ERIC/CAPS and The American School Counselor Association.

Elkind, D. (1990). Stress and the middle grader. In E. R. Gerler, C. C. Hogan, & K. O'Rourke (Eds.), The challenge of counseling in middle schools (pp. 149-163). Ann Arbor, Michigan: ERIC/CAPS and The American School Counselor Association.

Hoyt, K. B., & Shylo, K. R. (1987). Career education in transition: Trends and implications for the future. Columbus: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education, The Ohio State University.

Marcia, J. E. (1980). Identity in adolescence. In J. Adelson (Ed.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (pp. 159-181). New York: Wiley.

Smith, P. B., Nenny, S. W., & McGill, L. (1986). Health problems and sexual activity of selected inner city, middle school students. Journal of School Health, 56, 263-266.

Wegscheider, S. (1981). Another chance: Hope and health for the alcoholic family. Palo Alto: Science and Behavior Books.

Welte, J. W., & Barnes, G. M. (1985). Alcohol: The gateway to other drug use among secondary-school students. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 14, 487-498.

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Edwin R. Gerler, Jr., Ph.D., is Professor of Counselor Education at North Carolina State University in Raleigh.

This publication was prepared with funding from the Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education under contract number RI88062011. The opinions expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect the position or policies of OERI or the Department of Education.

Counseling Families from a Systems Perspective. Highlights: An ERIC/CAPS Digest.

In the past twenty years family therapy has become a major innovative force in the helping professions that has profoundly influenced the way counselors think about and intervene in the lives of their clients (Schafer, Briesmeiste, & Fitton, 1984). Systems theory offers family counselors both a conceptual and a practical framework for organizing diagnostic information and evaluating presenting problems.

Generally, the systems perspective views the family as a self-regulating system held together by unspoken rules whose purpose is to maintain itself. Psychological symptoms are viewed as manifestations of a dysfunctional family, and the focus of treatment then becomes the family system, not the problem or symptomatic family member.

THEORETICAL MODELS

Psychodynamic. An object-relations approach to family therapy pioneered by Ackerman (1958) that views dysfunction as the result of inappropriate current behavioral attempts to work out issues of the past.

Generational. Stresses the importance of differentiation, relationships between generations, and triangulation (Bowen, 1978). Therapists function as teachers and coaches.

Communications. Describes pathology as arising out of dysfunctional communication patterns (Bateson, 1972; Jackson & Weakland, 1961; Satir, 1964). Treatment focuses on changing interaction patterns to promote growth, emphasizing conflict management and new adaptive responses to dysfunctional communication.

Structural. Views dysfunction as a consequence of family structure (Haley, 1976; Leibman, Minuchin, & Baker, 1974; Minuchin, S., 1974). Insight comes only after structural change.

Strategic Intervention. A special model of therapeutic change designed by the Ackerman Institute, Jay Haley (1976), and Selvini-Palazzoli (1978), aimed at changing the powerful family rules in families particularly resistant to change. Treatment is brief (eight interviews).

CHARACTERISTICS OF A DYSFUNCTIONAL FAMILY

Family dysfunction may seriously interfere with children's developmental processes. Parents in such families are usually immobilized by pain from their past, fear of the present, and resistance to change.

FAMILY SYSTEMS INTERVENTION

Therapeutic Attitude. The family systems therapist uses an active, directive manner in which family strengths are affirmed, interpersonal distance is monitored, and reality is reframed. The therapist respects hierarchies of authority and values, supporting subsystems, and speaks the language of the family, attempting to blend in with the family organization and style--to identify with the children without becoming a child, and with the parents without becoming a parent (Minuchin, 1974). It is important to include all family members in the sessions, or at least think in terms of the entire family. Dysfunctional families resist this attitude because it focuses on the family system and not just the symptomatic member. The therapist must respect the power of the family system and work to show members a better way to live together. Too critical an approach can imply that the therapist is trying to destroy the family rather than maintain it. Therapists need to have resolved their own personal family issues if they are to be helpful in effecting change.

GOALS OF FAMILY TREATMENT

Therapy begins with a focus on the presenting problem or the symptomatic family member, with the hope that the family system will reveal itself around these initial issues. The goal is then to introduce family members to a broader way of conceptualizing and experiencing their problems. This approach typically achieves the following: -- Primary problems in family functioning are delineated. -- Scapegoating is neutralized. -- Guilt and blame decrease. -- Empathy for differences increases. -- Family myths and nonfunctional rules are challenged. -- New agreements for living together can be formed.

As the therapist monitors a family's struggle over time, covert rules of family life become overt and the family experiments with different ways of relating, communicating, and living together. Openly discussing issues and exposing family secrets often brings great relief and reduces tension.

COUNSELING TECHNIQUES WITH DYSFUNCTIONAL FAMILIES

Several techniques are useful in helping family members demonstrate how they normally deal with situations. Some examples include:

Sequencing. Ask questions like who does what, when? When kids are fighting, what is mother doing? father?

Hypothetical Questions. Who would be most likely to stay home if mother got sick? Which child can you visualize living at home as an adult?

Scaling Reports. On a scale of most-least, compare one another in terms of anger, power, neediness, happiness.

Family Map. Organize information about the generational development of a family that reveals the powerful transmission of family rules, roles, and myths (Bowen, 1978).

Reframing. Describe negative behavior in different ways. Acting out, for example, can be described as displaced anger from an unresolved family conflict.

Tracking. How does a family deal with a problem. "What was it like for you when. . . ?" rather than "How did you feel when. . . ?" These kinds of questions help keep the focus on the family rather than on the individual.

Sculpting. Create a still picture of the family that symbolizes relationships by having members position one another physically. This technique helps to cut through intellectualized defenses, and gets nonverbal members to express themselves.

Eco-Map. Organize data about the family's total environment and their relationship to it.

Paradoxical Intervention. Instruct a family to do something they don't expect and observe how the family then changes by rebellion or noncompliance. This approach is not appropriate in crisis situations such as violence, grief, or suicide, or for families with minimal resistance. It is reserved for highly resistant and rigid families and is clearly an advanced therapeutic skill (Papp, 1981).

Unbalancing. Support an individual or subsystem at the expense of others. This modifies family structure and introduces the possibility for alternative ways of living together.

SUMMARY

RESOURCE DOCUMENTS

Bateson, G. (1972). Steps to an ecology of mind. New York: Random House.

Bowen, M. (1978). Family treatment in clinical practice. New York: Jason Aronson.

Haley, J. (1976). Problem solving therapy. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Jackson, D. P., & Weakland, J. H. (1961). Conjoint family therapy: Some considerations on theory, technique, and results. Psychiatry, 24, 30-45.

Klimek, D., & Anderson, M. (1988). Inner world, outer world: Understanding the struggles of adolescence. Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan, ERIC Clearinghouse on Counseling and Personnel Services. (ED 290 118)

Liebman, R., Minuchin, S., & Baker, L. (1974). The role of the family in the treatment of anorexia nervosa. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 13, 264-274.

Minuchin, S. (1974). Families and family therapy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Papp, P. (1981). Paradoxes, family therapy techniques. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Satir, V. (1964). Conjoint family therapy. Palo Alto, CA: Science & Behavior Books.

Schafer, C. E., Briesmeiste, J. M., & Fitton, M. E. (1984). Family therapy techniques for problem behaviors of children and teenagers. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Selvini-Palazzoli, M. (1978). Paradox and counterparadox. New York: Jason Aronson. Mary Anderson, M.S.W. Family/Child Therapist Ann Arbor, Michigan

This publication was prepared with funding from the Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education, under contract no. RI88062011. The opinions expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect the positions or policies of OERI or the Department of Education.

Families can help their children both at home and at school. When families are involved in their children's education in positive ways, children achieve higher grades and test scores, have better attendance at school, complete more homework, demonstrate more positive attitudes and behavior, graduate at higher rates, and have greater enrollment in higher education (Henderson & Berla 1994; Becher 1984). Parents can emphasize good work habits, value learning and good character, set high expectations for their children, stay informed about their children's progress, and monitor their children's activities.

Although most studies have focused on younger children, the benefits of involvement can extend far beyond the preschool and elementary school years (Henderson 1987). For high school youth, parents can monitor homework and encourage participation in wholesome extracurricular activities, provide a sense of proportion to TV watching and video games, talk often to teachers, be active in parent-teacher associations, and help their children develop plans for careers and further education.

Data from the National Assessmet of Educational Progress support the efforts of families at home. Three factors over which parents can exercise authority -- student absenteeism, variety of reading materials in the home, and excessive television watching -- account for nearly 90 percent of the difference in the average state-by-state performance of eighth-graders' mathematics test scores among 37 states and the District of Columbia. In other words, most of the differences in achievement observed across states can be attributed to home practices. This means that families can improve their children's achievement in school by making sure their children attend school regularly, encouraging their children to read at home regularly, and turning off the TV (Barton & Coley 1992).

Studies also show a strong relationship between the number of higher-level courses taken and student achievement and college entrance test scores. Parents, with the assistance of the school guidance counselor, can encourage their children to take the appropriate preparatory courses in middle and junior high school (i.e., algebra, keyboard skills) and challenging sequences of courses in high school (i.e., chemistry, calculus, third and fourth years of the same foreign language, advanced placement courses, and advanced technology and computer courses).

What families do to help their children learn is more important to their academic success than how well-off the family is (Walberg, 1984). A national study of eighth-grade students and their parents shows that parental involvement in students' academic lives is indeed a powerful influence on students' achievement across all academic areas (Keith & Keith, 1993). Higher achievement results, in part, from the increased amount of homework completed by students with families who are more involved in their education.

Parents benefit as well. They develop a greater appreciation of their role in their children's education, an improved sense of self worth, stronger social networks, and even the desire to continue their own education. They also come to understand more about theirschools and teaching and learning activities in general (Davies 1988; Henderson & Berla 1994, Liontos 1994). Teachers report that they are encouraged by strong support from involved parents to raise their expectations for both children and parents.

Research and accounts of good practice point out many steps all families can take to improve the learning environment at home:

Read Together.

Athough math and science performance of American students on National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) and math scores on the Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) have shown improvement in recent years, NAEP reading scores and SAT verbal scores have remained basically the same. Reading is more dependent on home learning activities than is math or science (Mullis et al. 1994; College Board 1994). Children's success in school can be linked to reading to children and listening to them read. The single most important activity for building the knowledge required for eventual success in reading is reading aloud to children (Anderson et al. 1985). If every parent of a child aged 1 through 9 spent one hour reading or working on schoolwork with the child 5 days a week, American parents would annually devote at least 8.7 billion hours to supporting their children's reading. In money terms, if the child's teacher spent the same one-on-one time, the cost to the American taxpayer would be around $230 billion -- about the same as what the American public pays yearly for the entire American K-12 public education enterprise (U.S. Department of Education 1994a).

In practice, however, only half of parents with children under age 9 say they read to them every day, and only 13 percent read with their children aged 9 to 14 daily (Gorman 1993). Parents can also take their children to the library, help them get a library card, and help them find books on their interests and hobbies. The availability of reading material in the home, whether owned or borrowed from the library, is directly associated with children's achievement in reading comprehension (Lee & Croninger 1994).

Use TV Wisely.

Most parents (73 percent) want to limit their children's television viewing (Finney 1993), but parents who are at work or occupied elsewhere cannot easily do this. Forty-four percent of seventh-graders recently reported watching three or more hours of television a day (Puma et al. 1993). Although moderate amounts of viewing do not interfere with schoolwork, academic achievement drops sharply for children who watch more than 10 hours a week, or an average of 2 hours a day (U.S. Department of Education 1987). The quality of the television programs selected is also a concern. Although the evidence is not conclusive, possible effects on children who view television violence include less sensitivity to the pain and suffering of others, greater fear of the world around them, and increased likelihood of engaging in aggressive or harmful behavior (Murray & Connborg 1992). Families can limit the amount of viewing, help children select educational programs, watch programs together, and discuss them (ERIC 1990).

Establish a Daily Family Routine.

Studies show that successful students have parents who create and maintain family routines (Clark 1988; U.S. Department of Education 1987). Routines generally include time for doing homework, doing chores, eating meals together, and going to bed at an established time. Routines are important to make life predictable and satisfying for all family members. Discussion of daily events at mealtimes, for example, is an important routine.

Schedule Daily Homework Times.

Students with low test scores who spend substantial time on homework get as good grades as students with more ability who do no homework (U.S. Department of Education 1987). Spending more time on homework has the greatest effect in the upper grades (Cooper 1989). Parents can help by setting a regular time for homework each day; providing a quiet, well-lit place for study at home or encouraging children to study at a local library; and discouraging distractions from phone calls, radio, and television. Parents can encourage all children's efforts to learn, be available for questions, and spend time discussing what was learned. A parent does not have to know all the answers; demonstrating an interest is more important. Students can call on other family members, teachers, or librarians if more help with a certain subject or assignment is necessary.

The informal education that takes place in the family is not merely a pleasant prelude, but rather a powerful prerequisite for success in formal education from the primary grades onward.

Urie Bronfenbrenner, developmental psychologist, Cornell University

Monitor Out-of-School Activities.

Families can help children spend time constructively by guiding the use of leisure time, including time spent in TV viewing and time spent with friends. For example, regular phone calls from a working parent to an older child at home each afternoon can keep parents informed about and involved with their children's plans and activities. Monitoring after school activities may also be important in curbing sexual activity, drinking, and drug use by adolescents, especially where drugs and violence are serious concerns in the neighborhood. Positive extracurricular community activities can be learning experiences and fill idle time (U.S. Department of Education 1990). Community youth organizations, religious groups, arts and cultural institutions, school clubs, colleges and universities, and after-school programs should all be viewed as resources to help families and children.

Talk With Children and Teenagers.

Children and adults can learn a great deal about each other just by talking about their daily lives, current events, family history, and other common interests. Studies show that frequent, open family discussions are associated with higher student achievement (Barton & Coley 1992, Epstein 1991a; Leler 1983, Singer et al. 1988). Parents can get to know the friends of their teenagers, discuss school and outside activities with them, keep teenagers involved in family activities, and stress the importance of the teenagers as role models to younger siblings. An important part of discussion is listening; parents need to listen to and acknowledge their children's concerns and worries in order to help their children resolve them more effectively.

Communicate Positive Behaviors, Values, and Character Traits.

Families are still the most important influence on children's lives (Ingrassia 1993). Talking directly to teenagers about sex, drugs, and alcohol is one way to save their lives. Values instilled by parents -- honesty, belief in the work ethic, responsibility for one's actions, and religious principles -- are twice as important for school achievement as family economic or educational background (Hanson & Ginsburg 1985). By talking about the importance of these values, parents help their children learn to make good decisions. By acting on such values, parents serve as important role models to their children.

Expect Achievement and Offer Praise.

Parents need to set high standards for their children's schoolwork and to encourage the children to work hard to achieve those standards. Standards should be realistic, however, or students may be inclined to give up (Scott-Jones 1984). Families who praise children's skills and efforts, show interest and concern, and reward success tend to have children who are successful in school (Clark 1990). Parents who demonstrate warmth and also set limits have children who are more socially and academically skilled than do parents who emphasize mainly the warmth or the limits (Baumrind 1989).

Families can make a difference by the things they do with the school as well. Here are some ways:

Require Challenging Coursework for Middle and Secondary School Students.

Parents have a responsibility to encourage their children's school to offer and enroll students in a challenging sequence of courses in preparation for postsecondary education and a promising career. Taking "gatekeeper" courses, such as algebra and geometry, early in the high school experience is strongly associated with college enrollment. The differences in college enrollment rates between white and minority students are virtually nonexistent among the students who took both algebra and geometry in high school (Pelavin & Kane 1990; Pelavin Associates 1993). For students in special education, a strong transition plan can help them succeed in the world beyond school. Research shows that a comprehensive program of challenging courses, high standards, and career counseling will improve the likelihood that students will be academically successful. In addition, the integration of vocational and academic education appears to be a promising instructional strategy to help students understand abstract concepts through real-world situations. Parents can also encourage the school to provide on-the-job training and internships in vocational activities for students who are not headed for postsecondary education.

Keep in Touch With the School.

Families who are consistently informed about their children's progress at school have higher-achieving children (Henderson & Berla 1994). The partnership between parents and teachers is key to creating a climate at home and at school that is conducive to learning. Parents cannot afford to wait for schools to tell them how children are doing. Visiting the school and talking to teachers or having a phone conversation are good steps. Parents need to check on whether their children are assigned meaningful homework in appropriate amounts and are challenged to do their best. If children are not being challenged academically, families need to find out how they can change this situation.

Parents have to understand the hierarchy of education. If the principal isn't responsive, then go higher. Go to the superintendent. Go to the division of high schools or the community school board. Participate in your community school board elections, which not enough parents do at all, especially in the big cities. They have to understand that there are individuals who are higher up that are accountable to them.

Andrea Schlesinger, student representative, New York City Board of Education

Ask More From Schools.

To keep informed about and involved in what is going on at their children's school, families can work with the school to incorporate new ways to get more involved. Some examples are establishing homework hotlines, volunteering on school planning and decision-making committees, and creating family resource centers (Moles 1993). Parents also have a responsibility to insist that schools raise the standards of education, educate their children at a world-class level, and work toward achieving the National EducationGoals. Parents should compare their school's goals and standards against the National Education Goals and against emerging academic and occupational standards.

Use Community Resources.

Using community resources includes taking advantage of local enrichment programs and mentors and seeking community services when needed. Family-oriented community resources may include health care services, housing assistance, adult education and family literacy, employment counseling, and exposure to arts and cultural institutions. Youth-oriented community resources include after-school and summer learning programs, recreation centers and sports teams, community service activities, and religious youth groups. High-achievers are more likely than other students to participate in activities and to know persons who can buffer family and community difficulties (Clark 1990).

Encourage Your Employer to Get Involved.

Parents can encourage their employers to play a proactive role in the education of their children. Businesses can adopt policies that allow families to spend more time in their children's schools; form partnerships with schools; donate money, supplies, or expertise; or sponsor career exploration days for students. Businesses can also become part of a school-to-work program and encourage employees to serve as mentors to help introduce students to various occupations.

Families can take many actions at home, with the schools, and in the community to strengthen their children's academic achievement. When families have difficulty doing what is needed, schools, organizations in the community, and religious institutions can help provide assistance and draw families into partnerships around common concerns.

Examination

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